Biocompatible Polycaprolactone Fumarate Formulations

ABSTRACT

A polycaprolactone fumarate polymer useful as a matrix material for a biocompatible scaffold for tissue engineering applications is disclosed. The polycaprolactone fumarate polymer can be prepared by reacting caprolactone with an alkane polyol to prepare a polycaprolactone precursor, and then reacting the polycaprolactone precursor with fumaric acid or a salt thereof to prepare the polycaprolactone fumarate polymer. The use of an alkane diol, such as 1,2-propanediol, provides a linear polycaprolactone diol precursor. The use of an alkane triol, such as glycerol, provides a branched polycaprolactone triol precursor. The biocompatible polycaprolactone fumarate formulation releases no diethylene glycol or other undesirable byproducts during degradation.

CROSS-REFERENCES TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a divisional application of U.S. patent applicationSer. No. 14/009,987 filed Dec. 17, 2013, which is a 371 application ofPCT/US2012/032131 filed Apr. 4, 2012 which claims the benefit of U.S.Provisional Patent Application No. 61/473,347 filed Apr. 8, 2011, whichare all incorporated herein by reference in their entirety.

STATEMENT REGARDING FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH

This invention was made with government support under NIH/NIAMS AR056950and (MRMC) W81XWH-08-2-0034 awarded by National Institutes of Health.The government has certain rights in the invention.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention

This invention relates to the synthesis of a polycaprolactone fumaratepolymer useful as a material for a biocompatible scaffold for tissueengineering.

2. Description of the Related Art

Polycaprolactone fumarate (PCLF) is a cross-linkable derivative ofpolycaprolactone (PCL) that has been shown to be promising material fortissue engineering applications involving both the repair of segmentalnerve defects as well as a bone substitute. PCLF has previously beensynthesized by condensation polymerization of fumaryl chloride with apolycaprolactone ether diol of molecular weights 530, 1200, or 2000 gmol⁻¹. Previous work has shown that PCLF synthesized from PCL ether diolwith an M_(n) of 2000 g mol⁻¹ results in PCLF with an M_(n) of 7,000 to18,000 g mol⁻¹, and has the most favorable material properties overother PCLF formulations synthesized from PCL 530 or 1250. Therefore PCLFsynthesized from PCL₂₀₀₀ has been used for the production of nerveconduits to repair segmental nerve defects. These PCLF nerve conduitshave been shown to support robust nerve regeneration across the onecentimeter rat sciatic nerve defect model and have warranted futureclinical studies.

In preparation for upcoming clinical trials, the potential degradationproducts released from polycaprolactone fumarate scaffolds wereanalyzed. During the course of this degradation study, it was determinedthat diethylene glycol (also known as 2-hydroxyethyl ether) (DEG) can bereleased during hydrolysis as one degradation product from thepreviously studied polycaprolactone fumarate. The release of diethyleneglycol is of concern because it is has been reported to be a toxin andmakes up roughly 5 percent of a polycaprolactone fumarate compositionformed from polycaprolactone ether diol, an amount that currentlyexceeds United States Food and Drug Administration limits.

What is needed therefore is a biocompatible polycaprolactone fumarateformulation that releases no diethylene glycol or other undesirablebyproducts during degradation.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

It was determined that the source of diethylene glycol inpolycaprolactone fumarate scaffold degradation was the polycaprolactoneether diol used to prepare polycaprolactone fumarate. In order tocircumvent the release of this degradation product, new polycaprolactonefumarate compositions were synthesized using linear polycaprolactonediols or branched polycaprolactone triols. One example polycaprolactonediol was synthesized from 1,2 propanediol (PPD). One examplepolycaprolactone triol was synthesized from glycerol (GLY). Thesebiocompatible alcohols can be used as initiators for the polymerizationof polycaprolactone.

Although both 1,2 propanediol and glycerol can be used to producepolycaprolactone and the subsequent polycaprolactone fumarate, theresulting polymeric architectures are different. The 1,2 propanediolresults in linear polycaprolactone diol that is used as a precursor tothe synthesis of polycaprolactone fumarate, while glycerol results in atri-branched polycaprolactone structure producing a branchedpolycaprolactone fumarate architecture. The differences in the polymericarchitecture in turn effects the thermal, crystalline, and mechanicalproperties.

We have shown that polycaprolactone fumarate produced frompolycaprolactone initiated from 1,2 propane diol exhibits materialproperties similar to the previously studied polycaprolactone fumarate,and have shown that the material properties are dramatically altered byeffectively changing the polymeric architecture. Thus, the inventionprovides for the synthesis and characterization of new polycaprolactonefumarate compositions. We have characterized the thermal, crystalline,rheological, and mechanical properties of the new polycaprolactonefumarate compositions and combinations thereof and have determined theeffect of autoclave sterilization on these material properties.

These and other features, aspects, and advantages of the presentinvention will become better understood upon consideration of thefollowing detailed description, drawings, and appended claims.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1A shows the chemical structure of polycaprolactone fumarateprepared from a precursor synthesized using diethylene glycol.

FIG. 1B shows an H NMR of polycaprolactone (PCL_(DEG)) andpolycaprolactone fumarate (PCLF_(DEG)) degradation products whereinPCLF_(DEG) is a polycaprolactone fumarate polymer such as FIG. 1Aproduced by reacting fumaryl chloride with a polycaprolactone precursorpolymer synthesized from diethylene glycol (PCL_(DEG)).

FIG. 2 shows a synthetic scheme of PCLF PPD and PCLF Glycerol whereinPCLF PPD is a polycaprolactone fumarate polymer produced by reactingfumaryl chloride with a polycaprolactone precursor polymer synthesizedfrom 1,2 propane diol, and wherein PCLF Glycerol is a polycaprolactonefumarate polymer produced by reacting fumaryl chloride withpolycaprolactone precursor polymers synthesized from glycerol.

FIG. 3 shows a GPC trace of a polycaprolactone precursor polymersynthesized from 1,2 propane diol (PCL_(PPD)), a polycaprolactoneprecursor polymer synthesized from glycerol (PCL_(GLY)), and apolycaprolactone precursor polymer synthesized from diethylene glycol(PCL_(DEG)).

FIG. 4A shows an H NMR of PCLF. FIG. 4B shows an H NMR of PCLF_(GLY).FIG. 4C shows an H NMR of PCLF_(PPD). FIG. 4D shows an H NMR ofPCL_(PPD). FIG. 4E shows an H NMR of PCL_(GLY).

FIG. 5 shows a differential scanning calorimetry showing the heating andcooling traces of different PCLF compositions.

FIG. 6A shows a thermogravimetric analysis showing the thermaldecomposition with increasing temperature of cross-linked PCLFscaffolds. FIG. 6B shows a thermogravimetric analysis showing thethermal decomposition with increasing temperature of cross-linked PCLFscaffolds.

FIG. 7 shows the swelling ratio of PCLF scaffolds in methylene chloride.The swelling ratio was determined by the equation (Ws-Wd)Wd, where Ws isswollen weight and Wd is dry weight.

FIG. 8A shows a stress-strain curve for different PCLF compositions.

FIG. 8B shows tensile and flexural modulus for different PCLFcompositions.

FIG. 9A shows rheological measurements for % strain for different PCLFcompositions.

FIG. 9B shows rheological measurements for oscillating stress fordifferent PCLF compositions.

FIG. 9C shows rheological measurements for storage modulus for differentPCLF compositions.

FIG. 9D shows rheological measurements for loss modulus for differentPCLF compositions.

FIG. 9E shows rheological measurements for tan δ as a function offrequency for different PCLF compositions.

FIG. 9F shows rheological measurements for creep and recovery of PCLFfilms with an applied stress of 10 kPa for different PCLF compositions.

FIG. 10A shows rheological measurements for storage modulus fordifferent PCLF compositions after autoclave sterilization.

FIG. 10B shows rheological measurements for loss modulus for differentPCLF compositions after autoclave sterilization.

FIG. 10C shows rheological measurements for tan δ as a function offrequency for different PCLF compositions after autoclave sterilization.

FIG. 10D shows rheological measurements for creep and recovery of PCLFfilms with an applied stress of 10 kPa for different PCLF compositionsafter autoclave sterilization.

FIGS. 11, 11A, 11B, 11C, 11D, 11E, and 11F show PC12 cell attachment andmorphology. MTS assay showing the number of cells attached after 24hours. Fluorescence microscopy showing PC12 cell morphology after 24hours for: FIG. 11A—PCLF_(PPD100); FIG. 11B—PCLF_(PPD75)PCLF_(GLY25);FIG. 11C—PCLF_(PPD50)PCLF_(GLY50); FIG. 11D—PCLF_(PPD25)PCLF_(GLY75);FIG. 11E—PCLF_(GLY100); and FIG. 11F—PCLF_(DEG).

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

As used herein, a “biocompatible” material is one which stimulates onlya mild, often transient, implantation response, as opposed to a severeor escalating response. As used herein, a “biodegradable” material isone which decomposes under normal in vivo physiological conditions intocomponents which can be metabolized or excreted. As used herein, a“bioresorbable” material is one that breaks down over a finite period oftime due to the chemical/biological action of the body. By “injectable”,we mean the copolymer may be delivered to a site by way of a medicalsyringe. By “self-crosslinkable”, we mean the functional groups of apolymer according to the invention may crosslink with the functionalgroups of the same polymer or another polymer according to the inventionwithout a cross-linking agent that forms crosslinks between thefunctional groups of a polymer according to the invention and thefunctional groups of the same or another polymer according to theinvention.

The term “number average molecular weight” (M_(n)) refers to the totalweight of all the molecules in a polymer sample divided by the totalnumber of moles present (M_(n)=Σ_(i) N_(i) M_(i)/Σ_(l) N_(i)). Althoughnumber average molecular weight can be determined in a variety of ways,with some differences in result depending upon the method employed, itis convenient to employ gel permeation chromatography or endgroupanalysis. As used herein, “weight average molecular weight” is definedas M_(w)=Σ_(i) N_(i)M_(i) ²/Σ_(i) N_(i) M_(i). Although weight averagemolecular weight (M_(w)) can be determined in a variety of ways, withsome differences in result depending upon the method employed, it isconvenient to employ gel permeation chromatography. As used herein, theterm “polydispersity” or “polydispersity index” (PDI) refers to theratio of a materials' “weight average molecular weight” divided by its“number average molecular weight” (M_(w)/M_(n)).

In one non-limiting example embodiment, the invention is a polymerhaving the Formula (I):

H-A₁-B-A₂-C-A₁-B-A₂-H  (I)

wherein A₁ is

A₂ is

B is —O—X—O— wherein X is selected from the group consisting ofethylene, trimethylene, tetramethylene, pentamethylene, C₁-C₅alkylethylene, C₁-C₅ alkyltrimethylene, C₁-C₅ alkyltetramethylene, andC₁-C₅ alkylpentamethylene; C is

and geometric isomers thereof; and n is an integer from 1 to 50.

FIG. 2 shows a method for synthesizing one example of this embodiment ofthe invention wherein caprolactone is reacted with an alkane polyol(e.g., 1,2-propanediol) to prepare a polycaprolactone precursor, and thepolycaprolactone precursor is reacted with fumaric acid or a saltthereof. In a preferred embodiment, n is an integer from 1 to 20, morepreferably from 1 to 10. In another preferred embodiment, X ismethylethylene.

In some embodiments, the polymer has a number average molecular weightin the range of 5,000 to 15,000 g mol⁻¹ or the polymer has apolydispersity index in the range of 1 to 6.

In another non-limiting example embodiment, the invention is acrosslinkable, biodegradable material comprising the polymer having theFormula (I) as described above and a free radical initiator. In someembodiments the material does not include a crosslinking agent.

In another non-limiting example embodiment, the invention is a scaffoldcomprising a biodegradable matrix comprising the polymer having theFormula (I) as described above. In some embodiments, diethylene glycolis not released during hydrolysis of the scaffold. In other embodiments,the scaffold maintains its geometrical structure and dimensionsthroughout an autoclave sterilization process or the scaffold maintainsmechanical properties within an order of magnitude during an autoclavesterilization process.

In another non-limiting example embodiment, the invention is a polymerhaving the Formula (II):

wherein A₁ is

A₂ is

A₃ is

B is —O—X—O— wherein X is selected from the group consisting ofpropanetriyl, butanetriyl, pentanetriyl, C₁-C₅ alkyl propanetriyl, C₁-C₅alkyl butanetriyl, and C₁-C₅ alkyl pentanetriyl; C is

and geometric isomers thereof; and n is an integer from 1 to 50.

FIG. 2 shows a method for synthesizing one example of this embodiment ofthe invention wherein caprolactone is reacted with an alkane polyol(e.g., glycerol) to prepare a polycaprolactone precursor, and thepolycaprolactone precursor is reacted with fumaric acid or a saltthereof. In a preferred embodiment, n is an integer from 1 to 20, morepreferably from 1 to 10. In another preferred embodiment, X ispropanetriyl.

In some embodiments, the polymer has a number average molecular weightin the range of 5,000 to 15,000 g mol⁻¹ or the polymer has apolydispersity index in the range of 1 to 6.

In another non-limiting example embodiment, the invention is acrosslinkable, biodegradable material comprising the polymer having theFormula (II) as described above and a free radical initiator. In someembodiments the material does not include a crosslinking agent.

In another non-limiting example embodiment, the invention is a scaffoldcomprising a biodegradable matrix comprising the polymer having theFormula (II) as described above. In some embodiments, diethylene glycolis not released during hydrolysis of the scaffold. In other embodiments,the scaffold maintains its geometrical structure and dimensionsthroughout an autoclave sterilization process or the scaffold maintainsmechanical properties within an order of magnitude during an autoclavesterilization process.

In another non-limiting example embodiment, the invention is a scaffoldfor tissue regeneration. The scaffold includes a blend of the polymer ofFormula (I) described above and the polymer of Formula (II) describedabove. In a preferred embodiment, the scaffold includes 20 wt. % to 80wt. % of the polymer of Formula (I) and 20 wt. % to 80 wt. % of thepolymer of Formula (II). In a more preferred embodiment, the scaffoldincludes 40 wt. % to 60 wt. % of the polymer of Formula (I) and 40 wt. %to 60 wt. % of the polymer of Formula (II).

In some embodiments, the polymer of Formula (I) is methylethylene, thepolymer of Formula (II) is propanetriyl, or the polymer of Formulas (I)or (II) have a number average molecular weight in the range of 5,000 to15,000 g mol⁻¹ or a polydispersity index in the range of 1 to 6. In someembodiments, the scaffold maintains its geometrical structure anddimensions throughout an autoclave sterilization process or the scaffoldmaintains mechanical properties within an order of magnitude during anautoclave sterilization process.

In another non-limiting example embodiment, the invention is a polymerprepared by a process including reacting caprolactone with an alkanepolyol to prepare a polycaprolactone precursor and reacting thepolycaprolactone precursor with fumaric acid or a salt thereof. In oneembodiment, the polycaprolactone precursor is reacted with fumarylchloride.

The alkane polyols for use in synthesizing the polycaprolactoneprecursor are preferably alkane polyols having 2 to 5 carbon atoms.Preferably, the alkane polyol is a biocompatible C₂₋₅ polyol.

Non-limiting examples include: (i) alkane diols, such as 1,2-ethanediol,1,2-propanediol, 1,3-propanediol, 1,2-butanediol, 1,3-butanediol,1,4-butanediol, 2,3-butanediol and 1,5-pentanediol; and (ii)alkanetriols such as glycerol (1,2,3-propanetriol). Suitable molarratios of caprolactone to the alkane polyol are 1:1 to 50:1, morepreferably 10:1 to 30:1, and more preferably 15:1 to 25:1. Preferably,the alkane polyol is a biocompatible C₂₋₅ polyol.

In some embodiments the polycaprolactone precursor has a number averagemolecular weight in the range of 1,000 to 5,000 g mol⁻¹, preferably inthe range of 1,000 to 3,000 g mol⁻¹ or in the range of 1,500 to 2,500 gmol⁻¹. The polymer may be prepared by a process involving two separatereactions, wherein the polycaprolactone precursor is isolated, or thepolycaprolactone precursor and the polymer may be prepared in onereaction vessel without isolation of the polycaprolactone precursor.

The polycaprolactone fumarate which is the subject of this invention canbe provided as a resorbable and semi-crystalline polymer with a meltingpoint between 50-70 degrees centigrade depending on the molecular weightof the polycaprolactone fumarate. Above its melting point, thepolycaprolactone fumarate can be a free flowing liquid which can bephysically mixed with other formulation components such as porogen,initiator, crosslinking agent, accelerator, diluent, foaming agent,buffering agent, inhibitor catalyst, growth factors, particulate andfiber reinforcing materials, and stabilizers in free or encapsulatedform and the polycaprolactone fumarate can be injected via a syringe tofabricate a scaffold used for regeneration of biological tissues. Belowthe melting point, for example at human biological temperature of 37° C.(98.6° F.), the polycaprolactone fumarate can become a solid and hardenby physical as well as chemical crosslinking.

Physical crosslinking can take place by partial crystallization ofpolycaprolactone segments of the polycaprolactone fumarate chains.Chemical crosslinking can occur by cross-linking of double bonds of thefumarate groups of polycaprolactone fumarate chains in the presence ofsuitable initiator, accelerator, or crosslinking agent. However, thematerial can be self-crosslinkable such that a crosslinking agent is notneeded. The extent of physical and chemical crosslinking can becontrolled independently by the molecular weight of polycaprolactone,the molecular weight of the polycaprolactone fumarate macromer, and theratio of fumarate to polycaprolactone in the polycaprolactone fumaratemacromer. The degradation behavior of the polycaprolactone fumaratemacromer can be also controlled by the molecular weight ofpolycaprolactone, the molecular weight of the polycaprolactone fumaratemacromer, and the ratio of fumarate to polycaprolactone in thepolycaprolactone fumarate macromer.

A biocompatible and bioresorbable polycaprolactone fumarate biomaterialaccording to the invention can have a melting point between 50-70° C.and a hardening point between 30-40° C. This unique property makes thisbiomaterial useful in fabrication of injectable and in-situ hardeningscaffolds for application in skeletal reconstruction. Application ofthis invention can be as an injectable bioresorbable synthetic bonesubstitute or as an injectable bioresorbable bone cement with controlleddegradation behavior. Alternatively, the polycaprolactone fumaratebiomaterial can be injected into a mold for preparation of a scaffoldthat is thereafter implanted in the body.

It will be appreciated by those skilled in the art that while theinvention has been described above in connection with particularembodiments and examples, the invention is not necessarily so limited,and that numerous other embodiments, examples, uses, modifications anddepartures from the embodiments, examples and uses are intended to beencompassed by the claims attached hereto. Various features andadvantages of the invention are set forth in the following claims.

EXAMPLES

The following Examples have been presented in order to furtherillustrate the invention and are not intended to limit the invention inany way.

I. METHODS A. Materials

All chemicals and reagents were purchased from Fisher or Aldrich in thehighest available purity and used as is unless otherwise noted.Epsilon-caprolactone was distilled under vacuum at 100° C. and storedunder a nitrogen atmosphere until use. Fumaryl chloride was distilledbefore use.

B. Synthesis of Polycaprolactones

Tin(II)ethylhexanoate (2.08 g, 0.005 mol) and 1,2 propane diol (9.8 g,0.128 mol) were added to a Schlenk flask with a stir bar. The flask waspumped down and backfilled with N₂ three times followed by the additionof ε-caprolactone under N₂. The reaction vessel was placed in a 140° C.oil bath for 1 hour and then cooled to room temperature. The polymermelt solidified upon cooling and was dissolved in methylene chloridefollowed by precipitation into petroleum ether. The precipitated polymerwas dried under vacuum at 60° C. and used as is.

C. Synthesis of Polycaprolactone Fumarate

Potassium carbonate (18.0 g, 0.13 mol) was added to a three neck flaskfitted with a reflux condenser and purged with N₂. Polycaprolactone diol(225 g, 0.11 mol) was dissolved in 600 mL of methylene chloride andadded to the flask. Freshly distilled fumaryl chloride (17.2 g, 0.11mol) dissolved in 20 mL methylene chloride was added dropwise to thereaction vessel and heated to reflux for 12 hours. The reaction was thenfiltered to remove K₂CO₃, and precipitated into petroleum ether. Thepolymer was dried and used as is.

D. One Pot Synthesis of Polycaprolactone and Polycaprolactone Fumarate

To previously dried Schlenk Flask, Tin(II)ethylhexanoate (0.406 g, 0.001mol) was added followed by 1,2 propane diol (3.81 g, 0.05 mol). TheSchlenk Flask was evacuated to 1 mmHg and backfilled with N₂ threetimes. Caprolactone (103 g, 0.9 mol) was added to the vessel, and thevessel was heated to 140° C. for 40 minutes, and then cooled to 60° C.At this point GPC analysis shows the polymerization of caprolactone wascomplete. 300 mL tetrahydrofuran was added to the Schlenk Flask and thereaction was further cooled to 23° C. K₂CO₃ was added to the SchlenkFlask followed by dropwise addition of fumaryl chloride (7.23 g, 0.0473mol). The reaction mixture was stirred for 20 hours at 23° C. Thesolution was diluted with 400 mL tetrahydrofuran and the solution wasdecanted to separate from K₂CO₃ before adding 100 mL water. The solutionwas stirred for 1 hour, and then dried over MgSO₄. The majority oftetrahydrofuran was evaporated, and the polymer was dissolved inmethylene chloride. The methylene chloride layer was dried with MgSO₄,filtered, and then evaporated. The polymer was precipitated intopetroleum ether, dried, and used as is.

E. Polymer Characterization

Polymer molecular weights were measured using gel permeationchromatography (GPC). The GPC system consisted of a Waters 2410refractive index detector, 515 HPLC pump, and 717 Plus autosampler, anda Styragel HR4E column. THF was used as the eluent at 1 mL/min.Polystyrene standards were used to determine the M_(n) and PDI. ¹H NMRspectra were recorded on a 300 MHz Varian NMR in CDCl₃.

F. Scaffold Fabrication

Polycaprolactone fumarate (PCLF) (3.0 g) was dissolved in 1 mL methylenechloride. Photo-initiator Irgacure 819 acyl-phosphine oxide (0.3 g) wasdissolved in 3 mL methlylene chloride, and 300 μL was added to the PCLF.The mixture was gently heated and vortexed to ensure a homogenoussolution. The mixture was poured into glass molds for film and tubefabrication. The molds consisted of two glass plates separated by 0.5mm. The molds and containing polymer mixes were placed in a UV chamberand irradiated at 315-380 nm for 1 hour to induce cross-linking.

G. PCLF Degradation

PCLF scaffolds were degraded in D₂O containing 1 M NaOH at 37° C.

H. Autoclave Sterilization

Preformed films or tube scaffolds were packaged in sterilization pouchesand autoclaved at 125° C. at 23 psi for 25 minutes.

I. Thermal Analysis

Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) was performed on a TA Instruments Q500thermal analyzer. Samples were heated from room temperature to 800° C.at a rate of 5° C. min⁻¹ under flowing nitrogen. Dynamic scanningcalorimetry (DSC) was performed on a TA Instruments Q1000 differentialscanning calorimeter. Under a nitrogen atmosphere, the sample underwenta heat-cool-heat cycle to ensure the same thermal history betweensamples. Samples were heated from room temperature to 100° C., thencooled to −80° C., and then heated to 150° C. at a rate of 5° C. min⁻¹.

J. Mechanical Testing

Mechanical Testing was performed on a TA Instrument Dynamic MechanicalAnalyzer 2980. To analyze the three-point bending properties of thematerials, cylindrical tube geometry scaffolds were mounted on a TAinstruments DMA 2980 three-point bending clamp and a preload force of0.02 N was applied. A ramping force of rate 1.0 N/min was applied untilmaterial failure or 18 N achieved. The samples flexural moduli weremeasured at room temperature, after equilibration at 37° C. overnight,and at room temperature after autoclave. The TA instruments' universalanalysis software was used to identify the materials' flexural modulusat 5% strain for all materials. For stretching and tensile measurements,PCLF films were cut into a dog bone shape with a diameter of 2.1 mm.Half of the samples were kept in water at room temperature and half at37° C. in a water bath after previously had been heated to 50° C. Eachscaffold was mounted on a TA instruments Dynamic Mechanical Analyzer(DMA) 2980 tension clamp. The force applied on the sample started at0.02 Newton (N) and increased at a rate of 1.0 N/min until reachingeither 18.0 N or the material's failure point. Subsequently the tensilemodulus of the scaffolds was determined by measuring the slope of thelinear part of the stress/strain curve.

K. Rheometry

The linear viscoelastic properties of cross-linked PCLF polymer filmswere measured using a torsional dynamic mechanical analyzer (TAInstruments AR2000 rheometer). The linear viscoelastic region wasdetermined using a strain sweep at a frequency of 1 Hz. A strain of0.05% and oscillating stress 10 kPa were determined to be within thelinear viscoelastic region for all polymers and were used for allfurther rheometry measurements. A frequency sweep from 0.1 to 628.3rad/s was used to measure storage (G′) and loss (G″) moduli.

L. In Vitro Studies Using PC12 Cells

DMEM media supplemented with 10% heat inactivated horse serum, 5% heatedinactivated fetal bovine serum, and 0.5% penicillin/streptomycin wasused for PC12 cell culture. PCLF composite materials were fabricatedinto disks of diameters 1.0 cm as described above, sterilized with 70%ethanol and used as is. Toxicity of residual starting materials leachingfrom PCLF scaffolds was evaluated using a non contact method. PC12 cellswere seeded in 12-well plates at a density of 20,000 cells cm⁻² for 24hours prior to the addition of the polymeric material contained intranswells. PC12 cells were cultured in the presence of polymericmaterials for 1 day, and then the cell numbers were quantified with anMTS assay and the transwells were transferred to fresh wells containingcells and cultured for another 3 and 7 days.

To investigate PC12 cell response to different polymeric materials, 1.0cm disks were placed in 24-well plates. The scaffolds were sterilized in70% aqueous ethanol for 30 minutes and then rinsed with sterilephosphate buffered saline (PBS). Autoclaved medical grade silicon tubingwas inserted into the well to limit the surface area of the polymer diskto a diameter of 0.95 cm with a surface area of 0.71 cm². The well wasfilled with media and incubated for 12 hours to remove any remainingimpurities. PC12 cells were plated at a density of 30,000 cells cm⁻².Experiments were performed with nerve growth factor (NGF; 50 ng mL⁻¹)supplemented media.

Cell viability was determined using MTS (Promega, Madison, Wis.) assays.First, 0.5 mL trypsin was added to each well, aspirated, and put in theincubator for 10 minutes. Then 0.5 mL media was added to each well, andcells were gently dislodged from the surface with a cell scraper. Mediaand cells were then transferred to a new well and 0.1 mL of MTS(3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-5-(3-carboxymethoxyphenyl)-2-(4-sulfophenyl)-2H-tetrazolium)reagent was added to each well then and incubated for 2 hours at 37° C.The absorbance was measured at 490 nm on a Molecular Devices spectra maxplate reader.

Cell morphology was imaged by fluorescence microscopy. PC12 cells onpolymer scaffolds were fixed in 2% paraformaldehyde in PBS for 25minutes, and then washed with PBS three times. Cells were permeabilizedin 0.1% Triton 100× surfactant for 3 minutes and then incubated in 10%horse serum in PBS for 1 hour. Cells were stained in 1% rhodiumphalloidin in 5% horse serum in PBS for 1 hour and then washed with PBSthree times. Nuclei were stained with DAPI(4′,6-diamidino-2-phenylindole) just prior to mounting on a glass coverslip. Samples were imaged on an LSM 510 inverted confocal microscope andimaged at excitation wavelengths of 368 and 488 nm. See FIGS. 11, 11A,11B, 11C, 11D, 11E, and 11F which show PC12 cell attachment andmorphology.

II. RESULTS A. Synthesis of Polycaprolactone and PolycaprolactoneFumarate Polymers

Polycaprolactone precursor polymers were synthesized from 1,2 propanediol or glycerol initiators with a monomer:initiator ratio of 19:1. Thisratio was chosen in order to synthesize polycaprolactone with molecularweights similar to the commercially available polycaprolactone etherdiol synthesized from diethylene glycol (DEG). The polycaprolactoneprecursors were analyzed by GPC to ensure similar molecular weights.

One polycaprolactone fumarate polymer (PCLF_(PPD)) was produced byreacting fumaryl chloride with polycaprolactone precursor polymerssynthesized from 1,2 propane diol (PCL_(PPD)). Another polycaprolactonefumarate polymer (PCLF_(GLY)) was produced by reacting fumaryl chloridewith polycaprolactone precursor polymers synthesized from glycerol(PCL_(GLY)). Yet another polycaprolactone fumarate polymer (PCLF_(DEG))was produced by reacting fumaryl chloride with polycaprolactoneprecursor polymers synthesized from diethylene glycol (PCL_(DEG)). FIG.2 shows synthetic schemes of PCLF_(PPD) and PCLF_(GLY).

FIG. 3 shows that the GPC traces for polycaprolactone polymers are allsymmetrical and nearly identical. The polycaprolactone molecular weightsdetermined by GPC are shown in Table 1 below. The molecular weights forthe synthesized PCL and commercially available PCL are very similarindicating all of the caprolactone was consumed during the PCLsynthesis.

TABLE 1 Molecular Weight Characterization ^(b)Predicted M_(W) ^(c)M_(n)PDI ^(d) ¹H NMR ^(a)Polymer (g mol⁻¹) (g mol⁻¹) M_(w)/M_(n) (g mol⁻¹)PCL_(DEG) 2000  3800 1.7 2308 PCL_(PPD) 2245 3500-4400 1.4 2176PCL_(GLY) 2260 4000-5500 1.3 2386 PCLF_(DEG) — 11190 1.9 — PCLF_(PPD) —12200 2.0 — PCLF_(GLY) — 10100 2.7 — Characterization of polymermolecular weights. ^(a)The polymer composition described aspolymer_(initiator). ^(b)The predicted molecular weight based onmonomer:initiator loading or the molecular weight given by commercialsource. ^(c)Number average molecular weight measured by GPC usingpolystyrene standards. ^(d)Molecular weight determined by endgroupanalysis.

End group analysis using the terminal CH₂—OH groups present in ¹H NMR ofthe polycaprolactone polymers indicate the polycaprolactone molecularweights are also very close to the desired M_(n) of 2000 g mol⁻¹. The ¹HNMR protons associated with the initiator moieties are visible after thepolycaprolactone synthesis and have shifted from 3.3 and 3.8 to 4.15,4.28 and 5.25 for PCL_(GLY) and 3.5 and 3.8 to 4.15 and 5.15 forPCL_(PPD) indicating that initiation of polycaprolactone from both theprimary and secondary alcohols occurred on the PPD and GLY initiators.The discrepancy between molecular weights determined by GPC and endgroup analysis is caused by the use of polystyrene standards forgeneration of the GPC calibration curve.

Because of the different architecture and the increased number ofalcohols on PCL_(GLY), reaction times varied. Reactions with PCL_(PPD)were refluxed for 12 hours, while reactions using PCL_(GLY) weremonitored by GPC and a typical reaction time was 5 hours. All PCLFarchitectures had similar molecular weights ranging from 10-12 kg mol⁻¹for this study. However, PCLF_(GLY) had a broader PDI of 2.9.

B. Characterization of Thermal Transitions and Crystalline Properties

In order investigate the material properties of the new cross-linkedpolycaprolactone fumarate scaffolds, compositions of PCLF_(GLY) andPCLF_(PPD) ranging from 0 to 100 wt. % were fabricated. The thermal,swelling, mechanical, and rheological properties were characterized andcompared with previously studied PCLF_(DEG). FIG. 5 shows the heatingand cooling traces from differential scanning calorimetry (DSC)experiments used to measure the thermal transitions of PCLF. T_(m),T_(c), T_(g), ΔH_(m), ΔH_(c), and % crystallinity were analyzed and theresults are shown in Table 2 below.

TABLE 2 Thermal properties Polymer Tg ΔHm ΔHc Percent Composition (° C.)Tm (° C.) Tc (° C.) J/g J/g Crystallinity PCLF_(DEG) −55.8 37.2 −3.442.1 41.7 31.2 PCLF_(PPD100) −56.8 34.5 1.1 40.5 39.4 29.9 PCLF_(PPD75)−57.7 34.3 1 39 39.9 28.9 PCLF_(GLY25) PCLF_(PPD50) −57.1 32.04 −3.536.9 36.5 27.3 PCLF_(GLY50) PCLF_(PPD25) −56.7 29.8 −6.4 35.1 34.7 26PCLF_(GLY75) PCLF_(GLY100) −56.3 22.4 −13.2 33.1 32.5 24.5

In the polymer compositions of Table 2, PCLF_(DEG) was 100 wt. %PCLF_(DEG); PCLF_(PPD)10 was 100 wt. % PCLF_(PPD); PCLF_(PPD)75PCLF_(GLY)25 was 75 wt. % PCLF_(PPD) and 25 wt. % PCLF_(GLY);PCLF_(PPD)50PCLF_(GLY)50 was 50 wt. % PCLF_(PPD) and 50 wt. %PCLF_(GLY); PCLF_(PPD)25 PCLF_(GLY)75 was 25 wt. % PCLF_(PPD) and 75 wt.% PCLF_(GLY); and PCLF_(GLY) was 100 wt. % PCLF_(GLY).

The DSC data shows that PCLF_(PPD) exhibits thermal and crystallineproperties very similar to PCLF_(DEG). Compared to PCLF_(DEG),PCLF_(GLY) possesses a lower T_(m) from 37.2° C. to 22.4° C., reducedcrystallinity from 31.2% to 24.5%, and decreased ΔH_(m) from 42.1 to33.1 J/g. Table 2 also shows that the T_(m), T_(c), ΔH_(m), ΔH_(c), and% crystallinity can be tuned by choice of PCLFPPDPCLFGLY blendcomposition. FIGS. 6A and 6B show the thermal decomposition of thevarious PCLF scaffolds. All scaffolds show similar onsets ofdecomposition occurring at nearly 200° C. This indicates that thepolymers are thermally stable at temperatures of 121° C. to 134° C.typically used for autoclave.

C. Swelling Ratio

The swelling ratio of cross-linked polymeric films is an indicator ofthe relative cross-link density. The more highly cross-linked a materialis the less swelling occurs when placed in a theta solvent. FIG. 7 showsthe small differences in the swelling ratio of cross-linkedpolycaprolactone fumarate. PCLF_(DEG) has the highest swelling ratioindicating the lowest cross-linking density. Interestingly, thePCLF_(PPD50)PDLF_(GLY50) has the a similar swelling ratio, while bothPCLF_(PPD) and PCLF_(GLY) have similar low swelling ratios indicating ahigher cross-link density.

D. Mechanical Properties

The presence and percent of crystalline regions in polymer scaffoldsgreatly affects the scaffold mechanical properties, typically increasingthe crystallinity will increase a material's mechanical strength.Because of the differences in the crystalline properties of PCLF_(GLY),PCLF_(PPD), and PCLF_(DEG), the flexural and tensile modulus weremeasured. FIG. 8A shows the stress strain plots of the PCLF materials instretching mode. The stress strain plot shows the distinctly differentnature of the polymeric materials. PCLF_(DEG), and formulationscontaining any amount of PCLF_(PPD), exhibit rubber-like properties withreversible elastic properties at low strains <20%. PCLF_(GLY)100 stressstrain curve resembles an elastomeric material with high strains underlow stress. The results of the tensile and flexural moduli measurementsat 5% strain are shown in FIG. 8B. PCLF_(DEG) has tensile and flexuralmoduli of 88±13 and 67±10 MPa respectively. PCLF_(PPD) exhibits slightlydecreased moduli 55±4 and 47±8 while PCLF_(GLY) shows significantlylower tensile and flexural moduli of 4±1 and 7±1 MPa respectively.PCLF_(GLY) and PCLF_(PPD) blends moduli increased with increasingpercentage of PCLF_(PPD).

E. Rheological Properties

Rheology was used to analyze the viscoelastic properties of thedifferent polycaprolactone fumarate materials and subsequent blends.Frequency sweep and creep experiments were used to measure the storageand loss moduli as well as the materials' compliance and recoverybehavior. These parameters were used to investigate the effects of thedifferent crystalline microstructure on the cross-linkedpolycaprolactone fumarate viscoelastic behavior and were also used toevaluate material changes after autoclave sterilization. The linearelastic regions of PCLF materials were determined by performing strainsweeps from 0.1 to 100% strain at a frequency of 1 Hz. The linear regionwhere G′ is independent of strain (FIG. 9A) or oscillating stress (FIG.9B) were used to determine overlapping linear viscoelastic regions. Allfrequency sweeps were performed at 0.05% strain and the storage modulus(G′) and loss modulus (G″) vs. frequency are shown in FIGS. 9A and 9Dfor all PCLF compositions. G′ was measured at the physiologicallyrelevant 37° C. and is shown to be independent of frequency for all PCLFmaterials. PCLF_(DEG) and PCLF_(PPD) have the highest G′ of 14.7 and12.4 MPa respectively at 100 rad/s. G′ decreases with increasing amountsof PCLF_(GLY) to 3.7 MPa for PCLF_(PPD25)PCLF_(GLY75), and PCLF_(GLY)100has a G′ of 0.3 MPa, over an order of magnitude lower than all othercompositions. G″ exhibits frequency dependent behavior for PCLF_(GLY),but is mainly independent for all other PCLF compositions. G″measurements are an order of magnitude lower than G′, and thisrelationship is plotted as tan δ in FIG. 9E. Tan δ can be used toevaluate a materials elasticity and is plotted as G″/G′ vs. frequency.FIG. 9E shows all PCLF materials have tan δ values around 0.1 indicatingthe materials exhibit similar elastic behavior despite the differencesin G′ and G″ values.

In order to further demonstrate differences in the material propertiesof the branched vs. linear PCLF scaffolds, a creep experiment wasperformed to illustrate the compliance and recovery properties. Thecreep experiments shown in FIG. 9F demonstrate that the materialspossess distinctly different compliance characteristics when a constantstress of 10 kPa applied. PCLF_(DEG) and PCLF_(PPD) exhibited shearstrains of 0.11-0.27%. These strains are 1/36- 1/14 of the 4.0% shearstrain experienced by PCLF_(GLY)100.

F. Autoclave Sterilization

Sterilization is critical for translation of biomaterials into aclinical product. Because autoclave sterilization is a quick, effective,and FDA approved sterilization method, the effect of the autoclaveprocess on the PCLF properties was examined. A standard autoclaveprocedure was used with a temperature of 123° C. for 23 minutes in thepresence of steam. Immediately after autoclave sterilization, allmaterials appear transparent and slowly turned opaque as the scaffoldscooled. The three-dimensional structure was maintained and no noticeablechanges in the scaffold were observed. In order to determine materialchanges, the PCLF thermal and rheological properties were characterizedand compared with the properties prior to autoclave treatment. Table 3below shows the DSC results and changes in thermal transitions for PCLFmaterials after autoclave.

TABLE 3 Effect of Autoclave Sterilization on Thermal Properties PolymerTg Tm ΔHm ΔHc Percent Composition (° C.) (° C.) Tc (° C.) J/g J/gCrystallinity PCLF_(DEG) −57.2 39.4 12.93 49.7 50.2 36.8 (−1.4) (2.2)(16.3) (7.6) (8.5) (5.6) PCLF_(PPD100) −58.2 37.7 9.3 43.9 45.6 32.5(−1.4) (3.2) (8.2) (3.4) (6.2) (2.6) PCLF_(PPD75) −58.6 36.7 9.6 46.744.4 34.6 PCLF_(GLY25) (−0.9) (2.4) (8.6) (7.7) (4.5) (5.7) PCLF_(PPD50)−57.5 33.7 5.1 38.1 39.3 28.2 PCLF_(GLY50) (−0.4) (1.7) (8.6) (1.2)(2.8) (0.9) PCLF_(PPD25) −57.1 31.9 5.1 41.7 41.5 30.9 PCLF_(GLY75)(−0.4) (2.1) (11.5) (6.6) (6.8) (4.9) PCLF_(GLY100) −56.8 24 −8.2 34.133.1 25.3 (−0.5) (1.6) (5.0) (1.0) (0.6) (0.8)

The glass transitions decreased by 0.4-1.4° C., the melting temperaturesincreased 1.6-3.2° C., and the crystallization temperatures increasedfrom 5.0-16.3° C. The percent crystallization, ΔHm, and ΔHc increasesranged from 0.8-5.6%, 1.0-7.7 J/g, and 0.6-8.5 J/g respectively. For allparameters, PCLF_(GLY) consistently exhibited the lowest change due tothe autoclave sterilization process.

Rheological measurements were performed 1 day after sterilization andthe results are shown in FIGS. 10A to 10D. Only subtle differences wereobserved for G′, G″ and tan δ for all materials when compared to theproperties before sterilization. For instance, G′ for PCLF_(GLY)decreased from 2.6 MPa to 1.5 MPa after sterilization. This differencein G′ and G″ translated into increased compliance behavior when aconstant shear stress was applied as shown in FIG. 10D. PCLF_(GLY)exhibited an increase from 4 to 6.2%. Other PCLF materials also showedchanges in the G′ and G″ that changed their compliance behavior,although no PCLF exhibited a material behavior dramatically differentfrom those measured before the autoclave sterilization process.

III. DISCUSSION

PCL_(PPD) is a linear polymer architecture similar to commerciallyavailable PCL_(DEG), however PCL_(GLY) is tri-branched star polymer. Thetri-branched star polymer, because the over molecular weights aredesigned to be the same, the individual PCL chains are shorter forPCL_(GLY) than for PCL_(PPD) or PCL_(DEG).

A. Characterization of Thermal Transitions and Crystalline Properties

The crystalline nature of a polymeric material dramatically affects itsmechanical properties. PCLF is a semi-crystalline material thatpossesses a T_(m) very close to physiological temperatures. It isimportant to understand how a material acts thermally because thecrystalline regions are a significant contributor to a materialsstrength. Therefore the mechanical properties can vary dramaticallydepending whether PCLF is in its crystalline or amorphous state. The DSCdata shows that linear PCLF_(PPD) and PCLF_(DEG) have similar thermaland crystalline properties as expected because the polymeric compositionand architecture are identical except for the initiator that is about 5%of the total composition. PCLF_(GLY) has a decreased percentcrystallinity and T_(m) compared to the linear PCLF_(PPD) or PCLF_(DEG).The decrease in crystallinity is attributed to the effect of branching.Polymeric branching as well as increasing cross-link density can disruptthe crystallization process by reducing the chain motion necessary forfolding and ultimate crystal formation. PCL_(GLY) is a tri-branchedpolymer, however the resulting PCLF_(GLY) theoretically has multiplebranching points along the backbone, which the likely reason for thedecreased crystallinity. As a result of the branching the individual PCLchains are shorter (7 monomer units) than the linear counterparts (9-10monomer units) and this could also play a role in decreasedcrystallinity. However, this contribution is minor as Wang et al. showedthat linear PCLF with 5-6 monomer units per chain and cross-linked underthe same conditions exhibited a T_(m) of 31.6° C. and 30% crystallinity(See, Wang, S.; Yaszemski, M. J.; Gruetzmacher, J. A.; Lu, L.,“Photo-Crosslinked Poly(epsilon-caprolactone fumarate) Networks: Rolesof Crystallinity and Crosslinking Density in Determining MechanicalProperties”, Polymer (Guildf) 2008; 49:5692-99).

By changing the PCLF architecture, the T_(m) can be tuned to be above orbelow 37° C. Because of this, whether the material is in a crystallineor amorphous state near physiological temperatures is critical formaterial performance. To determine where these thermal transitionsoccur, differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) was performed and theheating and cooling traces are shown in FIG. 5.

B. Rheological Properties

Rheology was used to investigate the effect of microstructuredifferences on the gel cross-linked polymeric shear strength. Frequencysweeps reveal that G′ and G″ showed no frequency dependence for allmaterials except for PCLF_(GLY) that exhibits slight frequencydependence behavior. This indicates that all scaffolds possess a wellordered three-dimensional structure. The differences in G′ observedbetween PCLF materials agrees with the crystallization data and areattributed to the increasing percent crystallinity, T_(m) and T_(c)transitions. This means that PCLF_(DEG) and PCLF_(PPD) exhibit thehighest G′ and that G′ decreases with increasing percent PCLF_(GLY).

C. Autoclave Sterilization

A clinically relevant sterilization protocol is a critical point forbiomaterial/medical device development that is often over looked duringinitial polymer development, in vitro work, and even in vivo studieswhere simple sterilization with 70% alcohol will suffice. Autoclave isthe most commonly used sterilization technique for surgical instruments,however for easily degradable and non cross-linked polymeric materialsit can destroy the scaffold geometry or detrimentally affect thematerial properties and the ultimate device performance. The effect ofautoclave sterilization on PCLF properties was investigated because PCLFis hydrophobic, cross-linked, and more slowly degrading than otherpolyesters and therefore more resilient to autoclave sterilization.

IV. CONCLUSION

Polycaprolactone fumarate materials were successfully synthesized frombiocompatible 1,2 propane diol or glycerol initiated polycaprolactoneprecursors to eliminate the undesirable diethylene glycol component ofprevious polycaprolactone fumarate compositions. The linear PCLF_(PPD)polymeric scaffolds maintain thermal, rheological, and mechanicalproperties similar to PCLF_(DEG), while the branched PCLF_(GLY) can beused to tune the material properties. The branched structure ofPCLF_(GLY) disrupts crystallization resulting in reduced % crystallinityand T_(m) below physiological temperatures. This makes PCLF_(GLY)amorphous and changes its mechanical behavior to be elastomeric ratherthan purely elastic. Additionally it was shown that thesepolycaprolactone fumarate materials can be sterilized by autoclave withlittle change in the material properties.

Thus, the invention provides a biocompatible polycaprolactone fumarateformulation that releases no diethylene glycol or other undesirablebyproducts during degradation.

Although the present invention has been described in detail withreference to certain embodiments, one skilled in the art will appreciatethat the present invention can be practiced by other than the describedembodiments, which have been presented for purposes of illustration andnot of limitation. Therefore, the scope of the appended claims shouldnot be limited to the description of the embodiments contained herein.

What is claimed is:
 1. A polymer having the Formula (I)H-A₁-B-A₂-C-A₁-B-A₂-H  (I) wherein A₁ is

A₂ is

B is —O—X—O— wherein X is selected from the group consisting ofethylene, trimethylene, tetramethylene, pentamethylene,C₁-C₅alkylethylene, C₁-C₅alkyltrimethylene, C₁-C₅alkyltetramethylene,and C₁-C₅alkylpentamethylene; C is

and geometric isomers thereof; and n is an integer from 1 to
 50. 2. Thepolymer of claim 1 wherein: n is an integer from 1 to
 20. 3. The polymerof claim 1 wherein: n is an integer from 1 to
 10. 4. The polymer ofclaim 1 wherein: X is methylethylene.
 5. The polymer of claim 1 whereinthe polymer has a number average molecular weight in the range of 5,000to 15,000 g mol⁻¹.
 6. The polymer of claim 1 wherein the polymer has apolydispersity index in the range of 1 to
 6. 7. A crosslinkable,biodegradable material comprising: the polymer of claim 1; and a freeradical initiator.
 8. The material of claim 7 wherein: the material doesnot include a crosslinking agent.
 9. A scaffold for tissue regeneration,the scaffold comprising: a biodegradable matrix comprising the polymerof claim
 1. 10. The scaffold of claim 9 wherein: diethylene glycol isnot released during hydrolysis of the scaffold.
 11. The scaffold ofclaim 9 wherein: the scaffold maintains its geometrical structure anddimensions throughout an autoclave sterilization process.
 12. Thescaffold of claim 9 wherein: the scaffold maintains mechanicalproperties within an order of magnitude during an autoclavesterilization process.
 13. A polymer having the Formula (II)

wherein A₁ is

A₂ is

A₃ is

B is —O—X—O— wherein X is selected from the group consisting ofpropanetriyl, butanetriyl, pentanetriyl, C₁-C₅alkyl propanetriyl,C₁-C₅alkyl butanetriyl, and C₁-C₅alkyl pentanetriyl; C is

and geometric isomers thereof; and n is an integer from 1 to
 50. 14. Thepolymer of claim 13 wherein: n is an integer from 1 to
 20. 15. Thepolymer of claim 13 wherein: n is an integer from 1 to
 10. 16. Thepolymer of claim 13 wherein: X is propanetriyl.
 17. The polymer of claim13 wherein the polymer has a number average molecular weight in therange of 5,000 to 15,000 g mol⁻¹.
 18. The polymer of claim 13 whereinthe polymer has a polydispersity index in the range of 1 to
 6. 19. Acrosslinkable, biodegradable material comprising: the polymer of claim13; and a free radical initiator.
 20. The material of claim 19 wherein:the material does not include a crosslinking agent.
 21. A scaffold fortissue regeneration, the scaffold comprising: a biodegradable matrixcomprising the polymer of claim
 13. 22. The scaffold of claim 21wherein: diethylene glycol is not released during hydrolysis of thescaffold.
 23. The scaffold of claim 21 wherein: the scaffold maintainsits geometrical structure and dimensions throughout an autoclavesterilization process.
 24. The scaffold of claim 21 wherein: thescaffold maintains mechanical properties within an order of magnitudeduring an autoclave sterilization process.
 25. A polymer prepared by aprocess comprising: (a) reacting caprolactone with an alkane polyol toprepare a polycaprolactone precursor; and (b) reacting thepolycaprolactone precursor with fumaric acid or a salt thereof.
 26. Thepolymer of claim 25 wherein: step (b) comprises reacting thepolycaprolactone precursor with fumaryl chloride.
 27. The polymer ofclaim 25 wherein: the alkane polyol is selected from the groupconsisting of C₂-C₅ alkane diols.
 28. The polymer of claim 25 wherein:the alkane polyol is selected from the group consisting of C₂-C₅ alkanetriols.
 29. The polymer of claim 25 wherein: the alkane polyol isglycerol.
 30. The polymer of claim 25 wherein: the polycaprolactoneprecursor has a number average molecular weight in the range of 1,000 to5,000 g mol⁻¹.
 31. The polymer of claim 25 wherein: the polymer isprepared by a process involving two separate reactions, wherein thepolycaprolactone precursor is isolated.
 32. The polymer of claim 25wherein: both the polycaprolactone precursor and the polymer areprepared in one reaction vessel without isolation of thepolycaprolactone precursor.